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Myelography is an x ray examination of the spinal canal.A contrast agent.The purpose of a myelogram is to evaluate the spinal cord and nerve roots.Pressure on these delicate structures causes.A myelogram is performed when precise detail about.In most cases. myelography is used after other studies, such as.MRI or a computed tomography scan CT, have not provided enough.Sometimes myelography followed.CT scan is an alternative for patients who cannot have an MRI scan.A herniated or ruptured intervertebral disc, or related condition such as.The. condition is popularly known as a pinched nerve.Discs are pads of fiber.They lie between the vertebrae.Discs act as cushions, accommodating strains, shocks, and position.A disc may rupture suddenly, due to injury or a sudden strain.In other cases, the problem may.The lower back is the most common area for this problem, but.A myelogram can help.Myelography may be used when a tumor is suspected.Tumors can originate in.Cancers that have.It is important to precisely locate the mass causing pressure so effective.Patients with known cancer who develop back.Other conditions that may be diagnosed using myelography include arthritic.Description. Myelograms can be performed in a hospital x ray department or in an.The patient lies face down on the x ray.The radiologist first looks at the spine under fluoroscopy, and the.This is done to find the best location.The skin is cleaned, numbed with local anesthetic.Occasionally, a small amount of.Contrast material dye that shows up on x rays is then injected.The x ray table is tilted slowly, allowing the contrast material to reach.The flow is observed under.A footrest and shoulder straps or supports keep the patient from sliding.In many instances, a CT scan of the spine is performed immediately after a.This. helps outline internal structures more clearly.A myelogram takes approximately 3.A CT scan adds about.If the procedure is done as an outpatient.Patients who are unable to lie still or cooperate with positioning should.Severe congenital spinal abnormalities may make.Patients with a. history of severe allergic reaction to contrast material x ray dye.Medications to minimize the risk of severe reaction may be recommended.Given the invasive nature and risks of myelograms.MRI or CT, myelograms are.Preparation. Patients should be well hydrated at the time they are undergoing a.Increasing fluids the day before the study is usually.All food and fluid intake should be stopped approximately.Certain medications may need to be stopped for one to two days before.These include some antipsychotics.Patients should. discuss this with their physician or the staff at the facility where the.Patients who smoke may be asked to stop the day before the test.This. helps decrease the chance of nausea or headaches after the myelogram.Immediately before the examination, patients should empty their bowels and.Aftercare. After the examination is complete, the patient usually rests for several.Extra fluids are encouraged, to help.A regular diet and.Strenuous physical activities.The physician should be notified if the patient develops a.Headache is a common complication of myelography.It may begin several.The cause is thought to be.The. headache may be mild and easily alleviated with rest and increased fluids.Sometimes, nonprescription medicines are recommended.In some instances.Many factors influence whether the patient develops.Patients with a history of chronic or recurrent headaches are more.The chance of a reaction to the contrast material is a very small, but.It is estimated that only 51.The vast majority.These usually. resolve by themselves.A moderate reaction, like wheezing or hives, may be.Severe reactions, such as heart or.Rare complications of myelography include injury to the nerve roots from. What Is The Use Of Java Serialization Readobject . Inflammation. of the delicate covering of the spinal cord, called arachnoiditis, or.Seizures are another very uncommon.Normal results. A normal myelogram shows nerves that appear normal, and a spinal canal of.Abnormal results.A myelogram may reveal a herniated disk, tumor, bone spurs, or narrowing.Resources. Daffner, Richard.Clinical Radiology, The Essentials.Baltimore Williams and Wilkins, 1.Pagana, Kathleen Deska.Mosbys Manual of Diagnostic and.Laboratory Tests.St. Louis Mosby, Inc., 1.Torres, Lillian. Basic Medical Techniques and Patient Care in Imaging Technology.Philadelphia Lippincott, 1.Spine Center. 1. 91.Arch St., Philadelphia, PA 1.Ellen S. Weber, M.S. N. Lee A. Shratter, M. Front Page for the GSA.gov website. Traveler reimbursement is based on the location of the work activities and not the accommodations, unless lodging is not. Team Building Games Training Ideas and Tips. Great teamwork makes things happen more than anything else in organizations. The diagram representing Mc. Gregor's X- Y Theory helps illustrate how and why empowered teams get the best results. Empowering people is more about attitude and behaviour towards staff than processes and tools. ![]() ![]() Teamwork is fostered by respecting, encouraging, enthusing, caring for people, not exploiting or dictating to them. At the heart of this approach is love and spirituality which helps bring mutual respect, compassion, and humanity to work. People working for each other in teams is powerful force, more than skills, processes, policies. More than annual appraisals, management- by- objectives, the 'suits' from head office; more than anything. Teams usually become great teams when they decide to do it for themselves - not because someone says so. Something inspires them maybe, but ultimately the team decides. It's a team thing. It has to be. The team says: 'Okay. We can bloody well make a difference. We will be the best at what we do. We'll look out for each other and succeed - for us - for the team. And we'll make sure we enjoy ourselves while we're doing it'. And then the team starts to move mountains. People are best motivated if you can involve them in designing and deciding the activities - ask them. Team building activities are useful for improving team dynamics, building trust, facilitating communication and teamwork. Here are some short and long activities The. For login issues contact the ITD Service Support Center. at 443-642-3000 or 410-396-7400. Secondly you will gain most organisational benefit if the activities are geared towards developing people's own potential - find out what they will enjoy doing and learning. Games can be trite or patronising for many people - they want activities that will help them learn and develop in areas that interest them for life, beyond work stuff - again ask them. When you ask people commonly you'll have several suggestions which can be put together as a collection of experiences that people attend or participate in on a rotating basis during the day or the team- building event. Perhaps you have people among your employees who themselves have special expertise or interests which they'd enjoy sharing with others; great team activities can be built around many hobbies and special interests. If you are planning a whole day of team- building activities bear in mind that a whole day of 'games' is a waste of having everyone together for a whole day. Find ways to provide a mix of activities that appeal and help people achieve and learn - maybe build in exercises focusing on one or two real work challenges or opportunities, using a workshop approach. Perhaps involve a few employees in planning the day (under your guidance or not according to the appropriate level of delegated authority) - it will be good for their own development and will lighten your load. See also the guide to facilitating experiential learning activities. Team- building exercises and activities also provide a wonderful opportunity to bring to life the increasing awareness and interest in 'ethical organizations'. These modern ethical business ideas and concepts of sustainability, 'Fairtrade', corporate social responsibility, the 'triple bottom line', love, compassion, humanity and spirituality, etc., are still not well defined or understood: people are unclear what it all means for them individually and for the organization as a whole, even though most people are instinctively attracted to the principles. Team- exercises and discussions help bring clarity and context to idealistic concepts like ethics and social responsibility far more effectively than reading the theory, or trying to assimilate some airy- fairy new mission statement dreamed up by someone at head office and handed down as an edict. Fundamental change has to come from within, with support from above sure, but successful change is ultimately successful because people 'own' it and see it as their change, not something handed down. See for example the Triple Bottom Line exercise. Ensure that team- building activities and all corporate events comply with equality and discrimination policy and law in respect of gender, race, disability, age, etc. Age discrimination is a potential risk given certain groups and activities, and particularly so because Age Discrimination is quite a recent area of legislation. Team- building facilitators should be familiar with Employment Age Regulations and wider issues of Equality Law and its protections against discrimination for reasons of race, gender, disability, etc. While this is UK and European legislation, the principles are applicable to planning and running team- building exercises anywhere in the world, being consistent with the ethical concepts. Also consider the effects of team building and corporate events in terms of effects on employees' families and people's broader life needs. It is easy to become very narrowly focused on the organization and the community within it, without thinking of the families and social needs outside. Alcohol is another increasing area of risk for organizers of team building and conference events. An employer's duty of care (and potential liability) at corporate events traditionally was fulfilled by ensuring no- one tripped over the electrical cable for the overhead projector. Nowadays organizations have a deeper wider responsibility, which is progressively reflected in law. Alcohol and discrimination are big issues obviously, but arguably a bigger responsibility for employers is to the families and social well- being of employees, which impacts directly onto society as a whole.Today's well- led and ethically- managed corporations understand that divisive treatment of employees' partners and families undermines loyalty and motivation of employees, and creates additional unnecessary stresses for workers in close loving caring relationships, especially for young families, which have evolved a strong sensitivity to such pressures.If you read about Erik Erikson's Life Stages Theory you will understand why parents of young children especially are not helped by this sort of work pressure.Thwarting or obstructing people's instincts - evolved over millennia - to be with and take care of their partners and young families is extremely destructive. more. Employers who have a blatant antipathy for these crucial life needs of their people are therefore socially irresponsible.Inevitably strong work commitments put pressure on employees' families and partners.This is particularly so in big modern corporations where travel and lengthy absence from home is unavoidable in key roles. Modern ethical socially responsible organizations should be doing whatever they can to minimize these effects, not make them worse.Where possible employers should reward partners and families for their support and loyalty, rather than alienate them by creating selfish staff- only events.Laws are not yet clearly defined about the employer's liabilities arising from such situations, however there are clear principles (e.Moreover, fostering a healthy work and home life balance tends to make organizations run smoother and less problematically, notably in areas of grievance and counseling, stress and conflict, disputes and litigation, recruitment and staff retention, succession planning, company reputation and image.I was prompted to add this item because I received a question about the implications of running a staff- only dinner dance at a conference event.If you are considering a staff- only social event - especially at night, involving alcohol, dancing, overnight accommodation - or you are wondering generally where to draw the line between working relationships and intimacy, or between fun and irresponsible risk, these observations might help you decide.Implications and risks of organizing socially irresponsible events concern chiefly: The risks of running a socially irresponsible corporate event are emphasised if you consider a scenario containing the following elements. 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The number of points scored is equal to the number of rocks closer to the center than your opponent. A common question is if the different colors represent different point values, but they are just concentric circles making it easier for determinations. But this rule may change all that. At the Everest, if a rock completely covered the pinhole in the center, it was worth two points. The pinhole, which can be found at the intersection of the two black lines within the smallest white circle known as the button, is not a new concept, but it was never a scoring mechanism. The early returns on the two- point shot indicate that elite teams really had to figure out how to use it and defend against it, thinking twice about not just playing for “the force,” e. The Everest featured situations where the call was to go for the pinhole, which created some exciting pressure on the sweepers to guide the last stone into a microscopic location. Some of them were even successful, and in one time it meant the game. The lone competitive quarterfinal was John Epping’s team against Val Sweeting. Epping won 6- 4, although Sweeting had an open two- point shot in the final end to tie the game, but her stone just drifted too far. Again, these were teams playing together for the first time, but in an event where that’s not Sweeting’s first game of the weekend, that shot might have been made better. We’ll need more data on the two- pointer before discussing if it should become a standard rule, but its debut showed a ton of promise. It’ll encourage skips to not just be impeccable hitters (as most are) but to work on being deadly accurate to the pinhole, much like basketball teams did with the three- point line. Curling is one step closer to finding its Steph Curry. Matt Sussman is a sort- of- competitive curler from Ohio. You can follow him on Twitter at @suss. WebMD Symptom Checker helps you find the most common medical conditions indicated by the symptoms Gum sores, Mouth sores, Swollen gums and White patches inside mouth. White dots, blotches, patches or spots, occurring on tongue, are a rather ambiguous symptom. First of all, they range in appearance. Secondly, some of them cause pain. Tongue [tung] a muscular organ on the floor of the mouth; it aids in chewing, swallowing, and speech, and is the location of organs of taste. The taste buds are. Leukoplakia - Wikipedia. Leukoplakia. Synonyms. ![]() Leucoplakia,[1] leukokeratosis,[1] leukoplasia,[1] idiopathic leukoplakia,[2] idiopathic keratosis,[3] idiopathic white patch[3]Leukoplakia on the inside of the cheek. Specialty. Otolaryngology, dentistry. Symptoms. Firmly attached white patch on a mucous membrane, changes with time[4][5][6]Complications. Squamous cell carcinoma[4]Usual onset. After 3. 0 years old[4]Causes. Unknown[6]Risk factors. Smoking, chewing tobacco, excessive alcohol, betel nuts[4][7]Diagnostic method. Made after other possible causes ruled out, tissue biopsy[6]Similar conditions. Yeast infection, lichen planus, keratosis due to repeated minor trauma[4]Treatment. Close follow up, stop smoking, limit alcohol, surgical removal[4]Frequency. Up to 8% of men over 7. ![]() What Causes White Spots on Your Throat? A variety of conditions can cause white spots on throat. Noting your other symptoms and working with your doctor can help you. Leukoplakia generally refers to a firmly attached white patch on a mucous membrane which is associated with an increased risk of cancer.[4][5] The edges of the lesion are typically abrupt and the lesion changes with time.[4][6] Advanced forms may develop red patches.[6] There are generally no other symptoms.[8] It usually occurs within the mouth, although sometimes mucosa in other parts of the gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract, or genitals may be affected.[9][1. The cause of leukoplakia is unknown.[6] Risk factors for formation inside the mouth include smoking, chewing tobacco, excessive alcohol, and use of betel nuts.[4][7] It is a precancerous lesion, a tissue alteration in which cancer is more likely to develop.[4] The chance of cancer formation depends on the type, with between 3–1. Leukoplakia is a descriptive term that should only be applied after other possible causes are ruled out.[6]Tissue biopsy generally shows increased keratin build up with or without abnormal cells, but is not diagnostic.[4][6] Other conditions that can appear similar include yeast infections, lichen planus, and keratosis due to repeated minor trauma.[4] The lesions from a yeast infection can typically be rubbed off while those of leukoplakia cannot.[4][1. Treatment recommendations depend on features of the lesion.[4] If abnormal cells are present or the lesion is small surgical removal is often recommended; otherwise close follow up at three to six month intervals may be sufficient.[4] People are generally advised to stop smoking and limit the drinking of alcohol.[3] In potentially half of cases leukoplakia will shrink with stopping smoking; [5] however, if smoking is continued up to 6. The percentage of people affected is estimated at 1–3%.[4] Leukoplakia becomes more common with age, typically not occurring until after 3. Rates may be as high as 8% in men over the age of 7.Definition[edit]The word leukoplakia means "white patch",[3] and is derived from the Greek words λευκός - "white" and πλάξ - "plate".[1.Leukoplakia is a diagnosis of exclusion, meaning that which lesions are included depends upon what diagnoses are currently considered acceptable.[1.Accepted definitions of leukoplakia have changed over time and are still controversial.[1.It is possible that the definition will be further revised as new knowledge becomes available.[1. Brilliant Microsoft Excel 2007 Charts And Graphs Pdf Compressor . In 1. 98. 4 an international symposium agreed upon the following definition: "a whitish patch or plaque, which cannot be characterized clinically or pathologically as any other disease, and is not associated with any physical or chemical agent except the use of tobacco."[1. There were however problems and confusion in applying this definition.[1. At a second international symposium held in 1. The second international symposium therefore revised the definition of leukoplakia to: "a predominantly white lesion of the oral mucosa that cannot be characterized as any other definable lesion." This description is supported by the World Health Organization.[1. In the mouth (oral leukoplakia), is defined as "a predominantly white lesion of the oral mucosa that cannot be characterized as any other definable lesion".[1. However, this definition is inconsistently applied, and some refer to any oral white patch as "leukoplakia".[3]The term has been incorrectly used to describe white patches of any cause (rather than specifically referring to idiopathic white patches) and also to refer only to white patches which have a risk of malignant transformation.[3] It has been suggested that leukoplakia is an unhelpful term since there is so much inconsistency surrounding its use,[3] and some clinicians now avoid using it at all.[1. Classification[edit]. Leukoplakia in the lower labial sulcus. Leukoplakia of the soft palate. Exophytic leukoplakia on the buccal mucosa. Leukoplakia on the side of tongue. Leukoplakia could be classified as mucosal disease, and also as a premalignant condition. Although the white color in leukoplakia is a result of hyperkeratosis (or acanthosis), similarly appearing white lesions that are caused by reactive keratosis (smoker's keratosis or frictional keratoses e. Leukoplakia could also be considered according to the affected site, e. Leukoplakia may also occur in the larynx, possibly in association with gastro- esophageal reflux disease.[2. Oropharyngeal leukoplakia is linked to the development of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma,[2. Leukoplakia with tylosis and esophageal carcinoma). Dyskeratosis congenita may be associated with leukoplakia of the oral mucosa and of the anal mucosa.[2. Within the mouth, leukoplakia is sometimes further classified according to the site involved, e. There are two main clinical variants of oral leukoplakia, namely homogenous leukoplakia and non- homogenous (heterogenous) leukoplakia, which are described below. The word leukoplakia is also included within the nomenclature of other oral conditions which present as white patches, however these are specific diagnoses which are generally considered separate from leukoplakia, with the notable exception of proliferative verrucous leukoplakia, which is a recognized sub- type of leukoplakia. Homogenous leukoplakia[edit]Homogenous leukoplakia (also termed "thick leukoplakia")[2] is usually well defined white patch of uniform, flat appearance and texture, although there may be superficial irregularities.[2][1. Homogenous leukoplakia is usually slightly elevated compared to surrounding mucosa, and often has a fissured, wrinkled or corrugated surface texture,[2] with the texture generally consistent throughout the whole lesion. This term has no implications on the size of the lesion, which may be localized or extensive.[2] When homogenous leukoplakia is palpated, it may feel leathery, dry, or like cracked mud.[2]Non- homogenous leukoplakia[edit]Non- homogenous leukoplakia is a lesion of non- uniform appearance. The color may be predominantly white or a mixed white and red. The surface texture is irregular compared to homogenous leukoplakia, and may be flat (papular), nodular or exophytic.[1. Verrucous leukoplakia" (or "verruciform leukoplakia") is a descriptive term used for thick, white, papillary lesions. Verrucous leukoplakias are usually heavily keratinized and are often seen in elderly people. Some verrucous leukoplakias may have an exophytic growth pattern,[2] and some may slowly invade surrounding mucosa, when the term proliferative verrucous leukoplakia may be used. Non- homogenous leukoplakias have a greater risk of malignant transformation than homogenous leukoplakias.[1. Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia[edit]Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia (PVL) is a recognized high risk subtype of non- homogenous leukoplakia.[2. It is uncommon, and usually involves the buccal mucosa and the gingiva (the gums).[2. This condition is characterized by (usually) extensive, papillary or verrucoid keratotic plaques that tends to slowly enlarge into adjacent mucosal sites.[1][2] An established PVL lesion is usually thick and exophytic (prominent), but initially it may be flat.[2. Smoking does not seem to be as strongly related as it is to leukoplakia generally, and another dissimilarity is the preponderance for women over 5. There is a very high risk of dysplasia and transformation to OSCC or to verrucous carcinoma.[2]Erythroleukoplakia[edit]. Erythroleukoplakia ("speckled leukoplakia"), left commissure. Biopsy showed mild epithelial dysplasia and candida infection. Antifungal medication may turn this type of lesion into a homogenous leukoplakia (i. Erythroleukoplakia (also termed speckled leukoplakia, erythroleukoplasia or leukoerythroplasia) is a non- homogenous lesion of mixed white (keratotic) and red (atrophic) color. Libro - Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre. Un libro (del latínliber, libri) es una obra impresa, manuscrita o pintada en una serie de hojas de papel, pergamino, vitela u otro material, unidas por un lado (es decir, encuadernadas) y protegidas con tapas, también llamadas cubiertas. Un libro puede tratar sobre cualquier tema. Según la definición de la Unesco,[1] un libro debe poseer 2. También se llama "libro" a una obra de gran extensión publicada en varias unidades independientes, llamados "tomos" o "volúmenes". Otras veces se llama también "libro" a cada una de las partes de una obra, aunque físicamente se publiquen todas en un mismo volumen (ejemplo: Libros de la Biblia). Hoy en día, no obstante, esta definición no queda circunscrita al mundo impreso o de los soportes físicos, dada la aparición y auge de los nuevos formatos documentales y especialmente de la World Wide Web. ![]() Retrouvez toutes les discothèque Marseille et se retrouver dans les plus grandes soirées en discothèque à Marseille. Critical Errors Were Found In Setup Adobe Flash Cs3 Pro on this page. ![]() El libro digital o libro electrónico, conocido como e- book, está viendo incrementado su uso en el mundo del libro y en la práctica profesional bibliotecaria y documental. Además, el libro también puede encontrarse en formato audio, en cuyo caso se denomina audiolibro. Desde los orígenes, la humanidad ha tenido que hacer frente a una cuestión fundamental: la forma de preservar y transmitir su cultura, es decir, sus creencias y conocimientos, tanto en el espacio como en el tiempo. El planteamiento de esta cuestión supone: por un lado, determinar la forma de garantizar la integridad intelectual del contenido de la obra y la conservación del soporte en el que fue plasmada, y por otro, encontrar el medio por el cual se mantendrá inalterada la intención o finalidad para la cual se concibió. Catalogna. Catalogna, voto tra tensioni. File nonostante i divieti, la polizia.Catalogna, è battaglia nei seggi: la polizia carica, molti feriti. GUIA DO PRAZER: Tudo o que você precisa saber sobre sexo está aqui Torne-se um expert, aprenda com a experiência de outras pessoas. Como fazer uma mulher ter orgasmos múltiplos. Técnicas de excitação anal, vaginal sexo oral e do clitóris. Fotos. Como agradar um homem/mulher na cama. O ponto G. Proteus Full Version Free Download Crack Corel X4![]() Los orígenes de la historia del libro se remontan a las primeras manifestaciones pictóricas de nuestros antepasados, la pintura rupestre del hombre del paleolítico. Con un simbolismo, posiblemente cargado de significados mágicos, estas pinturas muestran animales, cacerías y otras escenas cotidianas del entorno natural del hombre antiguo, que trataba de dominar las fuerzas adversas de la naturaleza capturando su esencia mediante su representación. Son el más antiguo precedente de los primeros documentos impresos de que se tiene memoria. Comunicación oral y formas rudimentarias[editar]Las señales gestuales fueron la primera forma de expresar y transmitir mensajes. La palabra hablada es la manera más antigua de contar historias. Mediante fórmulas de valor mnemotécnico[2] se estructuraban narraciones, que pasaban de generación en generación como valiosa herencia cultural de los más diversos grupos humanos. Dichas reglas mnemotécnicas ayudaban tanto a la memorización como a la difusión de los relatos. Es el caso de los poemas homéricos, que han merecido valiosos estudios sobre el particular. Posiblemente, gran parte de las tradiciones y leyendas han tenido semejante inicio. Esta transmisión oral tenía el inconveniente de los «ruidos» que deformaban el mensaje. La mayoría de las veces era el narrador (rapsoda, aeda, juglar) quien en función de sus intereses la deformaba de una u otra forma. La escritura[editar]Cuando los sistemas de escritura fueron inventados en las antiguas civilizaciones, el hombre utilizó diversos soportes de escritura: tablillas de arcilla, ostracon, placas de hueso o marfil, tablas de madera, papiros, tablillas enceradas, planchas de plomo, pieles curtidas, etc. La escritura fue el resultado de un proceso lento de evolución con diversos pasos: imágenes que reproducían objetos cotidianos (pictografía); representación mediante símbolos (ideografía); y la reproducción de sílabas y letras. Los más antiguos vestigios de escritura se encuentran, hacia finales del IV milenio a. C., en el Antiguo Egipto, con jeroglíficos, y la antigua Mesopotamia, mediante signos cuneiformes (escritura cuneiforme; utilizaban una varilla con sección triangular, que al hendir en placas de arcilla, dejaba una marca en forma de cuña). La usaron los sumerios, acadios, asirios, hititas, persas, babilonios etc. La escritura egipcia, que perduró más de tres milenios, mediante jeroglíficos, representaba ideas abstractas, objetos, palabras, sílabas, letras y números. Evolucionó en las escrituras hierática y demótica. Otros pueblos, como los hititas y los aztecas también tuvieron tipos propios de escritura. La escritura china más antigua que se conoce son 5. C. en el yacimiento de Xiaotun, en la provincia de Henan. Pero los primeros libros reconocibles de China corresponden al siglo VI a. C., los jiance o jiandu, rollos de finas tiras de bambú o madera grabados con tinta indeleble y atados con cordel. Estos textos servían principalmente a causas institucionales , era la obra de funcionarios civiles o militares.[3]Desde Confucio en adelante (5. C.) los libros se convirtieron en importantes instrumentos de aprendizaje, se escribieron tratados de filosofía, medicina, astronomía y cartografía. En el período de los reinos combatientes (4. C.) La seda se usó mucho como soporte para escribir. La tela era ligera, resistente al clima húmedo, absorbía bien la tinta y proporcionaba al texto un fondo blanco, sin embargo era mucho más cara que el bambú, es por esto que en ocasiones se hacía una copia en bambú antes de grabarse en seda los textos importantes. La invención del papel según la tradición china, se atribuye a un eunuco de la corte imperial llamado Cai Lin en el 1. C. Usando nuevos ingredientes (trapos viejos, cáñamo, corteza de árbol y redes de pescar) creó un método de fabricación de papel muy similar al que se usa hoy en día. Pero el papel tardó cientos de años en reemplazar al bambú y la seda, fue hasta finales del siglo II d. C. que la corte imperial lo usó en cantidades importantes. Esta innovación no se propagó fuera de China hasta el 6. C. aproximadamente, y alcanzó Europa a través de España hasta el siglo XII. A mediados del siglo VIII los chinos inventaron la impresión xilográfica, o el grabado en madera, y la necesidad de reproducir un gran número de textos e imágenes budistas, calendarios, manuales de adivinación y diccionarios promovió una rápida y temprana propagación de la xilografía. El primer libro impreso chino que se ha encontrado es el Sutra del diamante del 8. C. Los impresores chinos crearon los tipos móviles hacia el siglo XI, el escritor chino Ch'en Kua (1. Mengshi Pitan), según el escritor el herrero Jen. Tsung de la dinastía de los Song del norte entre 1. También se le atribuye la creación de una mesa giratoria para guardar los caracteres, esta técnica se llamaba tipografía tablearia. Hacia el 1. 30. 0 Wang- Tcheng, un técnico agrónomo, emplazó la arcilla por madera de azufaifo, que era mucho más dura. Pero este avance no revolucionó la imprenta hasta el punto que lo hizo Gutenberg en Europa 4. A diferencia de las lenguas europeas, el chino escrito requiere miles de caracteres únicos, lo que hace mucho más eficaz los bloques de madera individuales que los enormes conjuntos de tipos reutilizables. En contraste con el declive de las artes de los escribas en occidente en los siglos que siguieron a la creación de la imprenta de tipos móviles, la caligrafía china conservó su prestigio, era un arte. No obstante, a finales del siglo XV, China había producido más libros que el resto del mundo junto. Los árabes aprendieron la técnica para fabricar papel de sus contactos con China en el siglo VIII, y este se introdujo en Europa en el siglo XII a través de la España musulmana.[3]La obra xilográfica más antigua encontrada hasta nuestros días es el Dharani Sutra de Corea, datado en el 7. C., aunque no se sabe quién fue el inventor de la xilografía los chinos y coreanos fueron los que impulsaron la impresión xilográfica, principalmente para editar textos religiosos. El budismo chino y coreano fue el vehículo que trasmitió la xilografía a Japón. Pero Corea realizó muchos otros avances que revolucionaron la manera de imprimir y en consecuencia el libro. Entre 1. 23. 4 y 1. Gwanghwa, debido a la invasión mongol, no disponían de madera dura fue entonces que imprimieron 2. Go geum sang jeong ye mun con caracteres móviles metálicos. La obra del año 1. Más tarde el rey Taejong puso en funcionamiento un taller que contribuía a la difusión de la escritura y en 1. Jujaso, donde se fabricaban caracteres móviles de imprenta, realizó la primera fundición de tipos móviles en bronce. |
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